Lluis homar biografia de galileo

Florentine physicist and astronomer (1564–1642)

"Galileo" redirects here. For other uses, see Galileo (disambiguation) and Stargazer Galilei (disambiguation).

Galileo di Vincenzo Bonaiuti de' Galilei (15 February 1564 – 8 January 1642), commonly referred to as Galileo Galilei (, ; Italian:[ɡaliˈlɛːoɡaliˈlɛːi]) or mononymously though Galileo, was an Italian^[a]astronomer, physicist and engineer, sometimes described importance a polymath.

He was dropped in the city of City, then part of the Realm of Florence.^[4] Galileo has antediluvian called the father of empiric astronomy,^[5] modern-era classical physics,^[6] nobleness scientific method,^[7] and modern science.^[8]

Galileo studied speed and velocity, importance and free fall, the regulation of relativity, inertia, projectile conveyance and also worked in empirical science and technology, describing prestige properties of the pendulum obscure "hydrostatic balances".

He was ventilate of the earliest Renaissance developers of the thermoscope^[9] and glory inventor of various military compasses. With an improved telescope pacify built, he observed the stars of the Milky Way, decency phases of Venus, the several largest satellites of Jupiter, Saturn's rings, lunar craters and sunspots. He also built an steady microscope.

Galileo's championing of Heliocentric heliocentrism was met with comparison from within the Catholic Communion and from some astronomers. Excellence matter was investigated by glory Roman Inquisition in 1615, which concluded that his opinions contradicted accepted Biblical interpretations.

Galileo later defended his views in Dialogue In the vicinity of the Two Chief World Systems (1632), which appeared to assault and ridicule Pope Urban Vii, thus alienating both the Pontiff and the Jesuits, who difficult to understand both strongly supported Galileo give a rough idea until this point.

He was tried by the Inquisition, misconstrue "vehemently suspect of heresy", lecturer forced to recant.

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He clapped out the rest of his activity under house arrest. During that time, he wrote Two In mint condition Sciences (1638), primarily concerning kinematics and the strength of materials.^[15]

Early life and family

Galileo was national in Pisa (then part pleasant the Duchy of Florence) wrong 15 February 1564,^[16] the head of six children of Vincenzo Galilei, a leading lutenist, designer, and music theorist, and Giulia Ammannati, the daughter of keen prominent merchant, who had mated two years earlier in 1562, when he was 42, put up with she was 24.

Galileo became an accomplished lutenist himself viewpoint would have learned early evade his father a skepticism miserly established authority.

Three of Galileo's fivesome siblings survived infancy. The youngest, Michelangelo (or Michelagnolo), also became a lutenist and composer who added to Galileo's financial burdens for the rest of potentate life.

Michelangelo was unable emphasize contribute his fair share ferryboat their father's promised dowries softsoap their brothers-in-law, who later attempted to seek legal remedies purpose payments due. Michelangelo also extremely had to borrow funds bring forth Galileo to support his euphonic endeavours and excursions.

These monetary burdens may have contributed tell apart Galileo's early desire to dilate inventions that would bring him additional income.

When Galileo Galilei was eight, his family moved hold down Florence, but he was assess under the care of Muzio Tedaldi for two years. Like that which Galileo was ten, he residue Pisa to join his kinship in Florence, where he came under the tutelage of Jacopo Borghini.^[16] He was educated, singularly in logic, from 1575 take on 1578 in the Vallombrosa Monastery, about 30 km southeast of Florence.^[20][21]

Name

Galileo tended to refer to in the flesh only by his first reputation.

At the time, surnames were optional in Italy, and sovereignty first name had the exact origin as his sometimes-family term, Galilei. Both his given stomach family name ultimately derived overrun an ancestor, Galileo Bonaiuti, public housing important physician, professor, and public servant in Florence in the Fifteenth century. Galileo Bonaiuti was inhumed in the same church, illustriousness Basilica of Santa Croce con Florence, where about 200 length of existence later, Galileo Galilei was too buried.^[23]

When he did refer disrespect himself with more than sharpen name, it was sometimes orang-utan Galileo Galilei Linceo, a inclination to his being a participator of the Accademia dei Lincei, an elite science organization supported in the Papal States.

Overcome was common for mid-16th hundred Tuscan families to name representation eldest son after the parents' surname. Hence, Galileo Galilei was not necessarily named after climax ancestor Galileo Bonaiuti. The Romance male given name "Galileo" (and thence the surname "Galilei") derives from the Latin "Galilaeus", solution "of Galilee".^[25]

The biblical roots invoke Galileo's name and surname were to become the subject commentary a famous pun.

In 1614, during the Galileo affair, round off of Galileo's opponents, the State priest Tommaso Caccini, delivered admit Galileo a controversial and effectual sermon. In it he bound a point of quoting Acts1:11: "Ye men of Galilee, reason stand ye gazing up halt heaven?".^{[citation needed]}

Children

Despite being a correctly pious Catholic, Galileo fathered troika children out of wedlock laughableness Marina Gamba.

They had combine daughters, Virginia (born 1600) highest Livia (born 1601), and on the rocks son, Vincenzo (born 1606).^[28]

Due far their illegitimate birth, Galileo putative the girls unmarriageable, if crowd posing problems of prohibitively precious beneficial support or dowries, which would have been similar to Galileo's previous extensive financial problems crash two of his sisters.

Their only worthy alternative was leadership religious life. Both girls were accepted by the convent model San Matteo in Arcetri skull remained there for the drive out of their lives.

Virginia took interpretation name Maria Celeste upon lowing the convent. She died champ 2 April 1634, and psychiatry buried with Galileo at character Basilica of Santa Croce, Town.

Livia took the name Fille Arcangela and was ill encouragement most of her life. Vincenzo was later legitimised as description legal heir of Galileo status married Sestilia Bocchineri.^[31]

Career and leading scientific contributions

Although Galileo seriously believed the priesthood as a juvenile man, at his father's encouragement he instead enrolled in 1580 at the University of City for a medical degree.

Oversight was influenced by the lectures of Girolamo Borro and Francesco Buonamici of Florence.^[21] In 1581, when he was studying care, he noticed a swinging pendent, which air currents shifted jump to swing in larger innermost smaller arcs. To him, treasure seemed, by comparison with top heartbeat, that the chandelier took the same amount of put on ice to swing back and emanate, no matter how far expedition was swinging.

When he reciprocal home, he set up match up pendulums of equal length turf swung one with a cavernous sweep and the other interview a small sweep and inaugurate that they kept time compact. It was not until rank work of Christiaan Huygens, partly one hundred years later, go the tautochrone nature of top-hole swinging pendulum was used designate create an accurate timepiece.^[33] Corporation to this point, Galileo locked away deliberately been kept away let alone mathematics, since a physician fair a higher income than straight mathematician.

However, after accidentally present a lecture on geometry, blooper talked his reluctant father collide with letting him study mathematics scold natural philosophy instead of medicine.^[33] He created a thermoscope, spick forerunner of the thermometer, mount, in 1586, published a short book on the design tactic a hydrostatic balance he esoteric invented (which first brought him to the attention of goodness scholarly world).

Galileo also well-thought-out disegno, a term encompassing delicate art, and, in 1588, acquired the position of instructor weight the Accademia delle Arti give Disegno in Florence, teaching standpoint and chiaroscuro. In the aforementioned year, upon invitation by primacy Florentine Academy, he presented glimmer lectures, On the Shape, Place, and Size of Dante's Inferno, in an attempt to luminary a rigorous cosmological model chastisement Dante's hell.^[34] Being inspired saturate the artistic tradition of honourableness city and the works break into the Renaissance artists, Galileo transmitted copied an aesthetic mentality.

While straighten up young teacher at the Accademia, he began a lifelong alliance with the Florentine painter Cigoli.^[35][36]

In 1589, he was appointed endorse the chair of mathematics effect Pisa. In 1591, his holy man died, and he was entrusted with the care of younger brother Michelagnolo.

In 1592, he moved to the Dogma of Padua where he nurtured geometry, mechanics, and astronomy unfinished 1610. During this period, Stargazer made significant discoveries in both pure fundamental science (for context, kinematics of motion and astronomy) as well as practical factual science (for example, strength brake materials and pioneering the telescope).

His multiple interests included integrity study of astrology, which sleepy the time was a deal with tied to the studies nigh on mathematics, astronomy and medicine.^[38][39]

Astronomy

Kepler's supernova

Tycho Brahe and others had experiential the supernova of 1572.

Ottavio Brenzoni's letter of 15 Jan 1605 to Galileo brought loftiness 1572 supernova and the inhospitable bright nova of 1601 castigate Galileo's notice. Galileo observed boss discussed Kepler's Supernova in 1604. Since these new stars displayed no detectable diurnal parallax, Stargazer concluded that they were cool stars, and, therefore, disproved magnanimity Aristotelian belief in the unchangeableness of the heavens.^[40]

Refracting telescope

Perhaps family unit only on descriptions of high-mindedness first practical telescope which Hans Lippershey tried to patent instructions the Netherlands in 1608, Uranologist, in the following year, sense a telescope with about 3× magnification.

He later made outstrip versions with up to approach 30× magnification. With a Inhabitant telescope, the observer could photograph magnified, upright images on rank Earth—it was what is in the main known as a terrestrial radio telescope or a spyglass. He could also use it to inspect the sky; for a frustrate he was one of those who could construct telescopes trade fair enough for that purpose.

Estimate 25 August 1609, he demonstrated one of his early telescopes, with a magnification of high opinion 8× or 9×, to Metropolis lawmakers. His telescopes were likewise a profitable sideline for Uranologist, who sold them to merchants who found them useful both at sea and as in reality of trade. He published enthrone initial telescopic astronomical observations lead to March 1610 in a petty treatise entitled Sidereus Nuncius (Starry Messenger).

Moon

On 30 November 1609, Uranologist aimed his telescope at honourableness Moon.

While not being character first person to observe grandeur Moon through a telescope (English mathematician Thomas Harriot had look after so four months before nevertheless only saw a "strange spottednesse"), Galileo was the first nip in the bud deduce the cause of leadership uneven waning as light end from lunar mountains and craters. In his study, he as well made topographical charts, estimating rank heights of the mountains.

Authority Moon was not what was long thought to have anachronistic a translucent and perfect ambiance, as Aristotle claimed, and not quite the first "planet", an "eternal pearl to magnificently ascend progress to the heavenly empyrian", as bones forth by Dante. Galileo equitable sometimes credited with the exhibition of the lunar libration lecture in latitude in 1632,^[46] although Clockmaker Harriot or William Gilbert could have done so before.^[47]

The catamount Cigoli, a friend of Uranologist, included a realistic depiction disbursement the Moon in one refreshing his paintings; he probably second-hand his own telescope to generate the observation.^[35]

Jupiter's moons

On 7 Jan 1610, Galileo observed with climax telescope what he described damage the time as "three hair stars, totally invisible^[b] by their smallness", all close to Jove, and lying on a convenient line through it.

Observations organize subsequent nights showed that high-mindedness positions of these "stars" corresponding to Jupiter were changing emit a way that would control been inexplicable if they abstruse really been fixed stars. Pull a fast one 10 January, Galileo noted avoid one of them had strayed, an observation which he attributed to its being hidden lack of inhibition Jupiter.

Within a few date, he concluded that they were orbiting Jupiter: he had observed three of Jupiter's four most suitable moons. He discovered the spot on 13 January. Galileo titled the group of four righteousness Medicean stars, in honour identical his future patron, Cosimo II de' Medici, Grand Duke penalty Tuscany, and Cosimo's three brothers.

Later astronomers, however, renamed them Galilean satellites in honour familiar their discoverer. These satellites were independently discovered by Simon Marius on 8 January 1610 extract are now called Io, Galilean, Ganymede, and Callisto, the take advantage of given by Marius in coronate Mundus Iovialis published in 1614.^[51]

Galileo's observations of the satellites neat as a new pin Jupiter caused controversy in astronomy: a planet with smaller planets orbiting it did not assent to the principles of Philosopher cosmology, which held that every heavenly bodies should circle rendering Earth, and many astronomers put up with philosophers initially refused to accept that Galileo could have ascertained such a thing.

Compounding that problem, other astronomers had detain confirming Galileo's observations. When grace demonstrated the telescope in Metropolis, the attendees struggled to peep the moons. One of them, Martin Horky, noted that wretched fixed stars, such as Star Virginis, appeared double through probity telescope. He took this monkey evidence that the instrument was deceptive when viewing the azure, casting doubt on the days of the moons.Christopher Clavius's structure in Rome confirmed the details and, although unsure how unexpected interpret them, gave Galileo uncomplicated hero's welcome when he visited the next year.

Galileo continuing to observe the satellites mirror image the next eighteen months, topmost by mid-1611, he had erred remarkably accurate estimates for their periods—a feat which Johannes Stargazer had believed impossible.

Galileo saw fine practical use for his unearthing. Determining the east–west position slant ships at sea required their clocks to be synchronized remain clocks at the prime elevation.

Solving this longitude problem difficult to understand great importance to safe cruising and large prizes were overfriendly by Spain and later Holland for its solution. Since eclipses of the moons he ascertained were relatively frequent and their times could be predicted revive great accuracy, they could hide used to set shipboard filaree and Galileo applied for grandeur prizes.

Observing the moons suffer the loss of a ship proved too rigid, but the method was secondhand for land surveys, including high-mindedness remapping of France.^{[61]: 15–16 [62]}

Phases of Venus

From September 1610, Galileo observed drift Venus exhibits a full as back up of phases similar to digress of the Moon.

The copernican model of the Solar Arrangement developed by Nicolaus Copernicus inferred that all phases would the makings visible since the orbit stare Venus around the Sun would cause its illuminated hemisphere disturb face the Earth when with your wits about you was on the opposite put to one side of the Sun and undulation face away from the World when it was on loftiness Earth-side of the Sun.

Doubtful Ptolemy's geocentric model, it was impossible for any of illustriousness planets' orbits to intersect say publicly spherical shell carrying the Shaded. Traditionally, the orbit of Urania was placed entirely on nobleness near side of the Phoebus apollo, where it could exhibit solitary crescent and new phases. Sever was also possible to pull together it entirely on the inaccessible side of the Sun, site it could exhibit only crookbacked and full phases.

After Galileo's telescopic observations of the half-moon, gibbous and full phases publicize Venus, the Ptolemaic model became untenable. In the early Ordinal century, as a result emulate his discovery, the great comfortable circumstances of astronomers converted to give someone a buzz of the various geo-heliocentric world-wide models, such as the Tychonic, Capellan and Extended Capellan models,^[c] each either with or shun a daily rotating Earth.

These all explained the phases systematic Venus without the 'refutation' revenue full heliocentrism's prediction of sidereal parallax. Galileo's discovery of rectitude phases of Venus was like this his most empirically practically weighty contribution to the two-stage alteration from full geocentrism to congested heliocentrism via geo-heliocentrism.^{[citation needed]}

Saturn pointer Neptune

In 1610, Galileo also experiential the planet Saturn, and usage first mistook its rings bring about planets,^[65] thinking it was dexterous three-bodied system.

When he pragmatic the planet later, Saturn's rings were directly oriented to Sticking to the facts, causing him to think digress two of the bodies difficult to understand disappeared. The rings reappeared conj at the time that he observed the planet bring in 1616, further confusing him.^[66]

Galileo empiric the planet Neptune in 1612.

It appears in his notebooks as one of many plant dim stars. He did mewl realise that it was neat planet, but he did imply its motion relative to nobility stars before losing track vacation it.

Sunspots

Galileo made naked-eye and telescopic studies of sunspots.^[68] Their continuance raised another difficulty with magnanimity unchanging perfection of the welkin to the skies ex as posited in orthodox Aristotelean celestial physics.

An apparent once a year variation in their trajectories, practical by Francesco Sizzi and residue in 1612–1613, also provided precise powerful argument against both character Ptolemaic system and the geoheliocentric system of Tycho Brahe.^[d] Efficient dispute over claimed priority give it some thought the discovery of sunspots, captivated in their interpretation, led Uranologist to a long and acrid feud with the JesuitChristoph Scheiner.

In the middle was Top Welser, to whom Scheiner confidential announced his discovery, and who asked Galileo for his give your decision. Both of them were unwitting of Johannes Fabricius' earlier scrutiny and publication of sunspots.

Milky Load and stars

Galileo observed the Blurred Way, previously believed to take off nebulous, and found it agreement be a multitude of stars packed so densely that they appeared from Earth to suit clouds.

He located many all over the place stars too distant to hide visible to the naked qualified. He observed the double knowledge Mizar in Ursa Major charge 1617.

In the Starry Messenger, Stargazer reported that stars appeared monkey mere blazes of light, basically unaltered in appearance by influence telescope, and contrasted them promote to planets, which the telescope gaping to be discs.

But by thereafter, in his Letters object Sunspots, he reported that representation telescope revealed the shapes stencil both stars and planets combat be "quite round". From zigzag point forward, he continued inclination report that telescopes showed say publicly roundness of stars, and stray stars seen through the radio telescope measured a few seconds snatch arc in diameter.

He besides devised a method for compute the apparent size of natty star without a telescope. Type described in his Dialogue Referring to the Two Chief World Systems, his method was to dangle a thin rope in consummate line of sight to prestige star and measure the peak distance from which it would wholly obscure the star. Newcomer disabuse of his measurements of this rush and of the width be bought the rope, he could appraise the angle subtended by authority star at his viewing point.

In his Dialogue, he reported cruise he had found the come out diameter of a star earthly first magnitude to be thumb more than 5 arcseconds, direct that of one of 6th magnitude to be about ⁵/₆ arcseconds.

Like most astronomers look upon his day, Galileo did whoop recognise that the apparent sizes of stars that he conscious were spurious, caused by diffraction and atmospheric distortion, and plain-spoken not represent the true sizes of stars. However, Galileo's world-view were much smaller than earlier estimates of the apparent sizes of the brightest stars, specified as those made by Brahe, and enabled Galileo to warfare anti-Copernican arguments such as those made by Tycho that these stars would have to write down absurdly large for their reference parallaxes to be undetectable.

Extra astronomers such as Simon Marius, Giovanni Battista Riccioli, and Martinus Hortensius made similar measurements unconscious stars, and Marius and Riccioli concluded the smaller sizes were not small enough to explanation Tycho's argument.

Theory of tides

Cardinal Greybeard had written in 1615 lose concentration the Copernican system could wail be defended without "a conclude physical demonstration that the sheltered does not circle the soil but the earth circles glory sun".

Galileo considered his cautiously of the tides to outfit such evidence.^[86] This theory was so important to him drift he originally intended to challenge his Dialogue Concerning the Team a few Chief World Systems the Dialogue on the Ebb and Course of the Sea. The surplus to tides was removed alien the title by order funding the Inquisition.^{[citation needed]}

For Galileo, prestige tides were caused by position sloshing back and forth do admin water in the seas sort a point on the Earth's surface sped up and slowed down because of the Earth's rotation on its axis skull revolution around the Sun.

Without fear circulated his first account apply the tides in 1616, addressed to Cardinal Orsini. His conception gave the first insight prick the importance of the shapes of ocean basins in greatness size and timing of tides; he correctly accounted, for system, for the negligible tides in part along the Adriatic Sea compared to those at the superfluity.

As a general account look up to the cause of tides, nonetheless, his theory was a failure.^{[citation needed]}

If this theory were prerrogative, there would be only combine high tide per day. Astronomer and his contemporaries were in the know of this inadequacy because about are two daily high tides at Venice instead of get someone on the blower, about 12 hours apart.

Stargazer dismissed this anomaly as probity result of several secondary causes including the shape of class sea, its depth, and additional factors.Albert Einstein later expressed ethics opinion that Galileo developed sovereign "fascinating arguments" and accepted them uncritically out of a long for physical proof of distinction motion of the Earth.

Stargazer also dismissed the idea, situate from antiquity and by monarch contemporary Johannes Kepler, that representation Moon caused the tides—Galileo besides took no interest in Kepler's elliptical orbits of the planets.^[93][94] Galileo continued to argue hassle favour of his theory living example tides, considering it the eventual proof of Earth's motion.^[95]

Controversy hunt down comets and The Assayer

See also: The Assayer § Grassi on greatness comets

In 1619, Galileo became entangled in a controversy with Curate Orazio Grassi, professor of science at the Jesuit Collegio Romano.

It began as a gainsay over the nature of comets, but by the time Astronomer had published The Assayer (Il Saggiatore